Preface
Acknowledgments
About the Author
Introduction
Chapter 1 Research, Biases in Thinking, and the Role of Theories
The Research Process: Humans Make Predictions
Heuristics and the Work of Kahneman and Tversky
Other Problems in Thinking
Doing Science as Tradition and Innovation
Research and the Value of Common Sense
Theories: What They Are and Why They Matter
Ways in Which Theories May Differ: Scope and Parsimony
Making a Connection Between a Theory and a Good Research Question
Chapter 2 Generating and Shaping Ideas: Tradition and Innovation
Ideas: Information Services, aka The Library
Ideas: Searching Effectively in the Library
Electronic Resources and Keywords
Keywords: The “Key” to Success
Other Databases and Indexes in the Social Sciences
Particular Kinds of Articles
How Journals Differ: Issues Related to Quality
Open Access and Predatory Publishers
Publication Practices of Journals
Journal Articles Versus Book Chapters
Physically Obtaining an Article: A Closer Look at Databases
Summary of the Article Locator Search Process
Interlibrary Loan (ILL) Systems and World Catalog (WorldCat)
What to Do With Your Articles (Read More Than the Abstract!)
The Discussion Section: Conflicts and Gaps
Keeping Track: ILL, Mendeley, and RefWorks
Confounding or Third Variables: Refining the Research Question and Closing the Research Gap
Time Pressure and Timelines
Academic Fraud and Steps Toward Transparency
Chapter 3 Research Design Approaches and Issues: An Overview
Research Quality Affects Research Answers
What Research Can Tell You: The Continuum of Certainty
Correlation Versus Causation
Why Conduct Correlational Research?
The Language of Correlation and Causation
Correlational Research Approaches: Correlational and Quasi-Experimental
Hallmarks of True Experimental Approaches
Differentiation of Independent and Dependent Variables
Reframing a Research Idea
Type I Versus Type II Error
Type II Errors: Sample Size, Power, and Effect Size
Behavior of the Experimenter and Demand Characteristics
Behavior of the Participant: Role Attitude
Single- and Double-Blind Approaches to Research
Pilot Tests and Manipulation Checks
Summary of Additional Threats to Internal Validity
External Validity and Ecological Validity
Where Research Takes Place
Where Qualitative Research Takes Place
Chapter 4 Ethics and the Institutional Review Board (IRB) Process
What Is the IRB, and Why Does It Exist?
History of Ethical Oversight
What Is Research? What Are Human Subjects?
What Kinds of Projects Do Not Require IRB Review?
IRB Duties, Membership, and Levels of IRB Review
Components of the IRB Proposal
Reasonable Person Standard
Children as a Vulnerable Population: Implications for Research
Ethics and Student Participation in Research: Alternatives to the Participant Pool
Offering Incentives in Research: Are Incentives Coercive?
Chapter 5 Measurement: Qualities of Measures
The Concept of Measurement: Ideal Versus Real
Sensitivity of a Scale and Anchor Values
The Process of Identifying Measures: The Literature
Databases of Tests (PsycTESTS and HaPI)
Department Resources and Professors
Catalogues of Measures and Fees Charged
Qualities of Measures: Reliability and Validity
The Importance of Computing Your Own Cronbach’s Alpha
Length and Difficulty of Measures
Names of Measures and Social Desirability Concerns
Chapter 6 Surveys: Developing Measures and Items
Developing Your Own Instrument
Scale Types and Flexibility in Answering Research Questions
The Order of Questions in a Survey
Online Survey Software Tools
Features of Online Survey Software Programs
Downloading Online Surveys Into SPSS
A Few Final Cautions (and Encouragements) About Online Survey Software
Chapter 7 Correlational Research and Specialized Nonexperimental Designs
Correlational Research: General Characteristics
What Correlational Data Can Tell Us
Considerations of Internal and External Validity in Correlational Research
Drawbacks to Correlational Approaches
Correlational Design: Quasi-Experimental Design (i.e., Questions About Groups)
Statistics Used in Correlational Designs
Factor Analysis: Data Reduction for Correlations Among Multiple Variables
Specialized Nonexperimental Designs
Time-Series and Interrupted Time-Series Designs
Strengths and Weaknesses of This Approach
When Is This Approach Used?
Real-World Challenges: Postoccupancy Evaluation (POE)
Longitudinal and Cross-Sectional Designs
Advantages and Disadvantages of the Longitudinal Approach
Advantages and Disadvantages of the Cross-Sectional Approach
Advantages of Using Multiple Methods
Chapter 8 Qualitative Research
Qualitative Research and the Concept of Reflexivity
Acceptance of Qualitative Methodology in the Social and Behavioral Sciences
Qualitative Approaches to Research
How to Capture Behavior: Behavioral Categories
How Often and How Long to Observe
Calculation of Inter-rater Reliability (IRR)
Acceptable Values for Inter-rater Agreement
Participant and Nonparticipant Observation and Overt/Covert Observation
Ethnography: Extended Observation
Issues in Ethnography: Gaining Access
Initial Ethnographic Tours
Interviews: Degrees of Structure
Case Studies and Case Histories
Where Qualitative Meets Quantitative: Content Analysis
Summary of Steps in a Content Analysis
Computer-Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis Software (CAQDAS)
Qualitative Research and the Emotional Self: A Final Consideration
Chapter 9 Experimental Research: Between-Subjects Designs: Conceptual and Practical Considerations
Between-Subjects Designs: What Are They?
Characteristics of Between-Subjects Designs: Advantages and Disadvantages
Nomenclature Surrounding IVs
More on Power, Sample Size, and Power Calculations
Number of IVs and Interaction Effects
Evaluating an Interaction by Hand
Common Types of Between-Subjects Design
Summary of Between-Subjects Design Considerations
Multiple Dependent Variables (DVs) in a Research Design
Practical Considerations: Finding and Creating IVs (Scenarios, Visual Images, Movie Clips, Auditory Clips)
Existing Literature: Method Section
Visual Images: Manipulating an Image
Chapter 10 Experimental Research: Within-Subjects Mixed , and Pre–Post Designs: Conceptual and Practical Considerations
Characteristics of Within-Subjects Design: Advantages and Disadvantages
Types of Research Questions More Commonly Asked in Within-Subjects Designs
Simple and Complex Within-Subjects Designs
Adding Complexity to Within-Subjects Designs
Pre–Post Designs: Characteristics
Types of Pre–Post Designs
Chapter 11 Recruiting Participants
Who Participates in Research: An Overview
The Participant Pool: The Workhorse of Social Science Research
The Drawbacks to Participant Pools: Concerns About Internal Validity
Limits on the Number of Participants Available From Unpaid Participant Pools
Keeping Track of Participants: Online Participant Management Systems
Practical Issues in Communicating About Recruiting
Research on Sensitive Topics and the Role of the IRB
Using Your Personal Connections
Using Your Institution’s Connections
Vulnerable Populations in the Community
Physical Security Issues in Conducting Research Off Campus
Service Learning Courses and Recruiting Participants: Opportunities and Complications
Conflicts of Interest and Multiple Relationships
Dustin’s Dozen: Tips for Collecting Data in the Field
Other Sources of Participants: The Online Approach
Online Use of Adverts (Advertisements) Versus Snowball Samples
Ethical Issues in Online Environments: The Facebook Emotional Contagion Study
Nonresponse Bias and Threats to Internal Validity
Nonresponse and Nonresponse Bias
Response Rates and Reporting Them
Incentives: Practical Issues
Amazon Mechanical Turk (MTurk): The World Awaits
Questions of Validity in Using Amazon MTurk
Chapter 12 Organizing Data and Analyzing Results
Paper and Online Surveys: An Overview
The Importance of Labeling
Labeling in a Data File and Deciding on a Coding System
Other Labeling Recommendations
Labeling Issues in Online Survey Software
Entering Individual Items Versus Item Totals
Dealing With Missing Data: Differing Points of View
Replacing Missing Data Through Single Value Imputation
Some Recommendations for Missing Data
Handling Out-of-Range Values
Going Fishing and Other Data Dredging Practices
Ethics, Cleaning Up, and Reporting Your Data: Final Comments
Significance Levels and p Values: What Are They?
Transforming and Selecting Data: Useful Commands in SPSS
Summary of Data Organization Steps
Evaluating Your Hypotheses: Where to Begin
Making Use of Free Response Items
Additional Aids: Online Calculators and Word Clouds
Other Statistical Software
Chapter 13 Writing and Presenting Your Research
Writing: One Section at a Time
Writing: Avoiding Plagiarism
Writing: Bias-Free Language
The Writing Itself: Clear and Simple
The “Shape” of Your Paper
Title Page, Authorship, and Author Note
The Title of the Paper and Its Importance
The Introduction: Content
Nonsignificant Results: What Can You Say?
Statistical Versus Practical Significance
General Formatting Issues: Mastering APA Style
Presenting Numbers: The Short Story
Common Grammatical Mistakes
Creating Conference Presentations
Highly Recommended Papers
Appendices
Glossary
References